The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the LDS Church or, informally, the Mormon Church) is a Christian restorationist church that is considered by its followers to be the restoration of the original church founded by Jesus Christ. The church is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and has established congregations (called wards or branches) and built temples worldwide. According to the church, it has over 74,000 missionaries and a membership of over 15 million. It is ranked by the National Council of Churches as the fourth-largest Christian denomination in the United States. It is the largest denomination in the Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith during the period of religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening. Adherents, often referred to as "Latter-day Saints", or, less formally, "Mormons", view faith in Jesus Christ and his atonement as the central tenet of their religion. LDS theology includes the Christian doctrine of salvation only through Jesus Christ, though LDS doctrines regarding the nature of God and the potential of mankind differ significantly from mainstream Christianity. The church has an open canon which includes four scriptural texts: the Bible (both Old and New Testaments), the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. Other than the Bible, the majority of the LDS canon constitutes revelation spoken by Joseph Smith and recorded by his scribes which includes commentary and exegesis about the Bible, texts described as lost parts of the Bible, and other works believed to be written by ancient prophets. Under the doctrine of continuing revelation, Latter-day Saints believe that Jesus Christ, under the direction of God the Father, leads the church by revealing his will to its president, whom adherents regard as a modern-day "prophet, seer, and revelator". The current president is Thomas S. Monson. Individual members believe that they can also receive personal revelation from God in conducting their lives. The president heads a hierarchical structure with various levels reaching down to local congregations. Bishops, drawn from the laity, lead local congregations. Male members, after reaching age 12, may be ordained to the priesthood, provided they are living the standards of the church. Women do not hold positions within the priesthood, but do occupy leadership roles in church auxiliary organizations. Both men and women may serve as missionaries, and the church maintains a large missionary program which proselytizes and conducts humanitarian services worldwide. Faithful members adhere to laws regarding sexual purity, health, fasting, and Sabbath observance, and contribute ten percent of their income to the church as a tithe. In addition, the church teaches sacred ordinances through which adherents make covenants with God, including baptism, confirmation, the sacrament (holy communion), endowment, and celestial marriage (marriage blessings which extend beyond mortality)—all of which are of great significance to church members. History: The history of the LDS Church is typically divided into three broad time periods: (1) the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, which is in common with all Latter Day Saint movement churches; (2) a pioneer era under the leadership of Brigham Young and his 19th-century successors; and (3) a modern era beginning around the turn of the 20th century as Utah achieved statehood. Beginnings: The LDS Church was formally organized by Joseph Smith on April 6, 1830, in western New York. Initial converts were drawn to the church in part because of the newly published Book of Mormon, a self-described chronicle of indigenous American prophets that Smith said he had translated from golden plates. Smith intended to establish the New Jerusalem in North America, called Zion. In 1831, the church moved to Kirtland, Ohio (the eastern boundary of Zion), and began establishing an outpost in Jackson County, Missouri (Zion's "center place"), where he planned to eventually move the church headquarters. However, in 1833, Missouri settlers brutally expelled the Latter Day Saints from Jackson County, and the church was unable via a paramilitary expedition to recover the land. Nevertheless, the church flourished in Kirtland as Smith published new revelations and the church built the Kirtland Temple, culminating in a dedication of the building similar to the day of Pentecost. The Kirtland era ended in 1838, after a financial scandal rocked the church and caused widespread defections. Smith regrouped with the remaining church in Far West, Missouri, but tensions soon escalated into violent conflicts with the old Missouri settlers. Believing the Saints to be in insurrection, the Missouri governor ordered that the Saints be "exterminated or driven from the State." In 1839, the Saints converted a swampland on the banks of the Mississippi River into Nauvoo, Illinois, which became the church's new headquarters. Nauvoo grew rapidly as missionaries sent to Europe and elsewhere gained new converts who then flooded into Nauvoo. Meanwhile, Smith introduced polygamy to his closest associates. He also established ceremonies, which he stated the Lord had revealed to him, to allow righteous people to become gods (joint heirs with Christ, see theosis) in the afterlife, and a secular institution to govern the Millennial kingdom. He also introduced the church to a full accounting of his First Vision, in which two heavenly "personages" (God the Father and his Son, Jesus Christ) appeared to him at age 14. This vision would come to be regarded by the LDS Church as the most important event in human history since the resurrection of Jesus. On June 27, 1844, Smith and his brother Hyrum were murdered by a mob in Carthage, Illinois, while being held on charges of treason. Because Hyrum was Joseph's designated successor, their deaths caused a succession crisis, and Brigham Young assumed leadership over the majority of Saints. Young had been a close associate of Smith's and was senior apostle of the Quorum of the Twelve. Other splinter groups followed other leaders in their own interpretation of the Latter Day Saint movement. Pioneer era: For two years after Smith's death, conflicts escalated between Mormons and other Illinois residents. To prevent war, Smith had predicted that the church would go to the West and be established in the tops of the Rocky Mountains. Brigham Young took Smith's advice and led his followers, known in modern times as the Mormon pioneers, to Nebraska and then in 1847 to what became the Utah Territory. As groups (over 60,000) arrived over a period of years, LDS settlers branched out and colonized a large region now known as the Mormon Corridor. Young incorporated the LDS Church as a legal entity, and initially governed both the church and the state as a theocratic leader. He also publicized the practice of plural marriage, a form of polygamy. By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Mormons and other Americans, largely as a result of accusations involving polygamy and the theocratic rule of the Utah Territory by Young. The Utah Mormon War ensued from 1857 to 1858, which resulted in the relatively peaceful invasion of Utah by the United States Army, after which Young agreed to step down from power and be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial governor, Alfred Cumming. Nevertheless, the LDS Church still wielded significant political power in the Utah Territory. At Young's death in 1877, he was followed by other church presidents, who resisted efforts by the United States Congress to outlaw Mormon polygamous marriages. In 1878, the United States Supreme Court, in Reynolds v. United States, decreed that "religious duty" to engage in plural marriage was not a valid defense to prosecutions for violating state laws against polygamy. Conflict between Mormons and the U.S. government escalated to the point that in 1890, Congress disincorporated the LDS Church and seized most of its assets. Soon thereafter, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially suspended the practice. Although this Manifesto did not dissolve existing plural marriages, so that families would not be split apart or damaged, no new polygamous marriages would be performed. Relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896. Relations further improved after 1904, when church president Joseph F. Smith again disavowed polygamy before the United States Congress and issued a "Second Manifesto", calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease, as they were already against church doctrine since Woodruff issued the Manifesto. Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today actively distances itself from "fundamentalist" groups still practicing polygamy. Modern times: During the 20th century, the church grew substantially and became an international organization, due in part to the spread of missionaries around the globe. In 2000, the church reported 60,784 missionaries and global church membership stood at just over 11 million. Worldwide membership surpassed 13 million in 2007 and reached 14 million in July 2010, with about six million of those within the United States. However, it is estimated based on demographic studies from the early 1990s that only one-third of the total worldwide membership (about 4 million people as of 2005) are considered "active churchgoers." The church cautions against overemphasis of growth statistics for comparison with other churches because relevant factors—including activity rates and death rates, methodology used in registering or counting members, what factors constitute membership, and geographical variations—are rarely accounted for in the comparisons. The church has become a strong and public champion of the nuclear family and at times played a prominent role in political matters, including opposition to MX Peacekeeper missile bases in Utah and Nevada, the Equal Rights Amendment, legalized gambling, same-sex marriage, and physician-assisted death. Apart from issues that it considers to be ones of morality, however, the church maintains a position of political neutrality, but encourages its members to be politically active, to participate in elections, and to be knowledgeable about current political and social issues within their communities, states, and countries. A number of official changes have taken place to the organization during the modern era. One significant change was the ordination of men of black African descent to the priesthood in 1978, which reversed a policy originally instituted by Brigham Young in 1852. There are also periodic changes in the structure and organization of the church, mainly to accommodate the organization's growth and increasing international presence. For example, since the early 1900s, the church has instituted a Priesthood Correlation Program to centralize church operations and bring them under a hierarchy of priesthood leaders. During the Great Depression, the church also began operating a church welfare system, and it has conducted numerous humanitarian efforts in cooperation with other religious organizations including Catholic Relief Services and Islamic Relief, as well as secular organizations such as the American Red Cross. Teachings and practices- Authorized texts: The theology of the LDS Church consists of a combination of biblical doctrines with modern revelations and other commentary by LDS leaders, particularly Joseph Smith. The most authoritative sources of theology are the faith's canon of four religious texts, called the "standard works". Included in the standard works are the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. The Book of Mormon is said by the church to be "Another Testament of Jesus Christ" that Smith translated from buried golden plates. The LDS Church believes that the Angel Moroni told Smith about these golden plates and guided him to find them buried in the Hill Cumorah. The church believes that this Angel Moroni is at least partial fulfilment of Revelation 14:6 in the Bible. The church characterizes the Book of Mormon as "the most correct of any book on earth and the keystone of the religion". The Bible, also part of the church's canon, is believed to be "the word of God as far as it is translated correctly." Most often, the church uses the Authorized King James Version. Sometimes, however, parts of the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible (corrections and restorations of assertedly damaged or lost passages) are considered authoritative. Some excerpts of Smith's translation have been included in the Pearl of Great Price, which also includes further translations by Smith and church historical items. Other historical items and revelations are found in the Doctrine and Covenants. Another source of authoritative doctrine is the pronouncements of the current Apostles and members of the First Presidency. The church teaches that the First Presidency (the church's president and his counselors) and the Quorum of Twelve Apostles are prophets and that their teachings are generally given under inspiration from God through the Holy Spirit. Members of the church acknowledge (sustain) them regularly as prophets, seers, and revelators—this is done publicly twice a year at the church's worldwide general conference. Distinctive doctrines and practices: Several doctrines and practices of the LDS Church are peculiar within Christianity. For example, the Mormon cosmology and plan of salvation include the doctrines of a pre-mortal life, three degrees of heaven, and exaltation. According to these doctrines every human spirit is a literal child of Heavenly Father, and each has the potential to continue to learn, grow, and progress in the eternities, eventually achieving eternal life (which Latter-day Saints view distinct from immortality), which is to become one with God in the same way that Jesus Christ is one with the Father, thus allowing the children of God to become divine beings or "gods" themselves, the LDS view of theosis, also referred to as becoming a "joint-heir with Christ." The process by which this is accomplished is called exaltation, a doctrine which includes the reunification of the mortal family after the resurrection and the ability to have spirit children in the afterlife and inherit a portion of God's kingdom. To obtain this state of godhood, the church teaches that one must have faith in Jesus Christ, repent of his or her sins, strive to keep the commandments faithfully, and participate in a sequence of ceremonial covenants called ordinances, which include baptism, receiving the gift of the Holy Ghost, the endowment, and celestial marriage. This latter ordinance, known as a sealing ceremony, reflects a singular LDS view with respect to families. According to LDS Church theology, men and women may be "sealed" to one another so that their marital bond continues into the eternities. Children may also be sealed to their biological or adoptive parents to form permanent familial bonds, thus allowing all immediate and extended family relations to endure past death. The most significant LDS ordinances may be performed via proxy in behalf of those who have died, such as baptism for the dead. The church teaches that all will have the opportunity to hear and accept or reject the gospel of Jesus Christ and the blessings that come to those who faithfully adhere to it, in this life or the next. Ordinances such as baptisms for the dead, sealings, and endowments are performed in temples that are built and dedicated specifically for these purposes. The LDS faithful observe a health code called the "Word of Wisdom," in which they abstain from the consumption of alcohol, coffee, tea, and tobacco. The Word of Wisdom also encourages the use of wholesome herbs and fruits within season, moderate consumption of meat, and consumption of grains. Latter-day Saints follow a moral code, called the "law of chastity," which prohibits adultery, all homosexual behavior, and any sexual relations outside of marriage. LDS faithful donate a ten percent tithe on their annual income, which is used to carry out the operations of the church, including construction of temples, meetinghouses and other buildings, as well as other church uses. Faithful members also set aside the first Sunday of each month to abstain from food and drink for at least two consecutive meals, and prayerfully dedicate the fast to a purpose of the individuals' choosing. They donate at least the cost of the two skipped meals as a fast offering, which the church uses to assist the poor and needy and expand its worldwide humanitarian efforts. Members are further instructed to set aside one night a week, typically Monday, for a "Family Home Evening," where they gather together as a family to study gospel principles and participate in wholesome activities. Missionary service: All LDS young men are expected to serve a two-year, full-time proselytizing mission. Missionaries do not choose where they serve or the language in which they will proselytize, and are expected to fund their missions themselves or with the aid of their families. Prospective male missionaries must be at least 18 years old and no older than 25, not yet married, have completed secondary school, and meet certain criteria for physical fitness and spiritual worthiness. Missionary service is not compulsory, nor is it required for young men to retain their church membership. Unmarried women 19 years and older may also serve as missionaries, generally for a term of 18 months. However, the LDS Church emphasizes that women are not under the same expectation to serve as male members are, and may serve solely as a personal decision. There is no maximum age for missionary service for women. Prior to October 2012, the minimum age for full-time missionary service was generally 19 for men and 21 for women. Retired couples are encouraged to serve missions, and may serve for either 6-, 12-, 18-, or 23-month terms. Unlike younger missionaries, these senior missionaries may serve in non-proselytizing capacities such as humanitarian aid workers or family history specialists. Comparisons with Christian denominations outside the Latter Day Saint movement: The LDS Church shares various teachings with other branches of Christianity. These include a belief in the Bible (subject to an acknowledgement that it is imperfect), the divinity of Jesus, and his atonement and resurrection. LDS theology also includes belief in the doctrine of salvation through Jesus alone, restorationism, millennialism, continuationism, penal substitution, and a form of apostolic succession. The practices of baptism by immersion and the eucharist (referred to as the sacrament) are also held in common. However, the Catholic Church considers doctrinal differences between the two groups to be so great that it will not accept a prior LDS baptism as evidence of Christian initiation, as it will baptism by other Christian groups, such as the Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches. The LDS Church does not accept baptisms performed in other churches. Nevertheless, the LDS Church differs from the many other churches within contemporary Christianity, and many people do not accept the church as part of Christianity. The faith itself views other modern Christian faiths as having departed from true Christianity via a general apostasy and maintains that it is a restoration of 1st-century Christianity and the only true and authorized Christian church. Differences between the LDS Church and most of traditional Christianity include disagreement with aspects of the Nicene Creed, belief in a unique theory of human salvation that includes three heavens (referred to as "degrees of glory", its interpretation of I Cor. 15:35 et.seq.), a doctrine of "exaltation" which includes the ability of humans to become gods and goddesses in the afterlife, a dietary code called the Word of Wisdom, and unique ceremonies performed privately in LDS temples, such as the endowment and sealing ceremonies. Officially, major Christian denominations view the LDS Church as standing apart from creedal Christianity. Leaders of the LDS Church assert that the LDS Church is the only true church and that other churches do not have the authority to act in Jesus' name. From the perspective of Christians who agree with creeds, the most significant area of departure is the rejection by the LDS Church of certain parts of ecumenical creeds such as the Nicene Creed, which defines the predominant view of the Christian God as a Trinity of three separate persons in "one essence". LDS Church theology includes the belief in a "Godhead" composed of God the Father, his Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost as three separate Persons who share a unity of purpose or will; however, they are viewed as three distinct Beings making one Godhead. Other significant differences relate to the church's acceptance of additional scripture, doctrine, and practices beyond what is found in the Catholic, Protestant, or Eastern Orthodox versions of the Bible. Comparison with other Latter Day Saint movement faiths: The LDS Church shares a common heritage with a number of smaller faith groups that are collectively called the Latter Day Saint movement. The largest of these smaller groups is the Community of Christ (previously known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), based in Independence, Missouri, followed by the The Church of Jesus Christ, based in Monongahela, Pennsylvania. Like the LDS Church, these faiths believe in Joseph Smith as a prophet and founder of their religion. They also accept the Book of Mormon, and most, but not all, accept at least some version of the Doctrine and Covenants. However, they tend to disagree to varying degrees with the LDS Church concerning doctrine and church leadership. The main branches of the Latter Day Saint movement resulted from the crisis of succession upon the death of Joseph Smith. Other branches may be considered later offshoots of the LDS Church branch, mainly due to disagreements about plural marriage. Organization and structure- Name and legal entities: The church teaches that it is a continuation of the Church of Christ established in 1830 by Joseph Smith. This original church underwent several name changes during the 1830s, being called the Church of Jesus Christ, the Church of God, and then in 1834, the name was officially changed to the Church of the Latter Day Saints. In April 1838, the name was officially changed to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. After Smith died, Brigham Young and the largest body of Smith's followers incorporated the LDS Church in 1851 by legislation of the State of Deseret under the name "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", which included a hyphenated "Latter-day" and a British-style lower-case "d." In 1887, the LDS Church was legally dissolved in the United States by the Edmunds–Tucker Act because of the church's practice of polygamy. (The Edmunds–Tucker Act was repealed in 1978.) In the United States, the church continues to operate as an unincorporated entity. Accepted informal names for the church include the LDS Church, the Latter-day Saints, and the Mormons. The term Mormon Church is in common use, but the church began discouraging its use in the late 20th century, though takes no issue with the term Mormon itself. The church requests that the official name be used when possible or, if necessary, shortened to "the Church" or "the Church of Jesus Christ". Tax-exempt corporations of the LDS Church include the Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which was organized in 1916 under the laws of the state of Utah to acquire, hold, and dispose of real property; the Corporation of the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which was established in 1923 in Utah to receive and manage money and church donations; and Intellectual Reserve, Inc., which was incorporated in 1997 to hold the church's copyrights, trademarks, and other intellectual property. Non-tax-exempt corporations of the church include Bonneville International and the Deseret News. Geographic distribution and membership: Church congregations are organized geographically. Members are generally expected to attend the congregation with their assigned geographical area; however, some geographical areas also provide separate congregations for young single adults (between the ages of 18 and 30), single adults aged 31 to 45, or for speakers of alternate languages. For Sunday services, the church is grouped into either larger (~150 to ~400 people) congregations known as wards, or smaller congregations known as branches. Although the building may sometimes be referred to as a chapel, the room used as a chapel for religious services is actually only one component of the standard meetinghouse, of which the church maintains a virtual tour of a typical example and also an online meetinghouse locator which can be used to find the locations and meeting times of its congregations all over the world. Regional church organizations encompassing multiple congregations include stakes, missions, districts, areas, and regions. The church reports a worldwide membership of 15 million with approximately 8.3 million residing outside the United States, as of December 2011. According to these statistics it is the fourth largest religious body in the United States. The church membership report includes all baptized members and their children. Although the church does not release attendance figures to the public, researchers estimate that actual attendance at weekly LDS worship services globally is around 4 million. Members living in the U.S. and Canada constitute 46% percent of membership, Latin America 38 percent, and members in the rest of the world 16 percent. The 2012 Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey, conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates International, found that approximately 2 percent of the U.S. adult population self identified as Mormon. The church continues to seek recognition in regions where it has had little or no influence. On August 30, 2010, church leaders announced that they were making significant progress on "regularized operations for the Church in China." Priesthood hierarchy: The LDS Church is organized in a hierarchical priesthood structure administered by men. Latter-day Saints believe that Jesus leads the church through revelation and has chosen a single man, called "the Prophet" or President of the Church, as his spokesman on the earth. The current president is Thomas S. Monson. While there have been exceptions in the past, he and two counselors are normally ordained apostles and form the First Presidency, the presiding body of the church; twelve other apostles form the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. When a president dies, his successor is invariably the most senior member of the Quorum of the Twelve (the one who has been an apostle the longest), who then reconstitutes a new First Presidency. These men, and the other male members of the church-wide leadership (including the first two Quorums of Seventy and the Presiding Bishopric) are called general authorities. They exercise both ecclesiastical and administrative leadership over the church and direct the efforts of regional leaders down to the local level. General authorities and mission presidents work full-time and typically receive stipends from church funds or investments. At the local level, the church leadership are drawn from the laity and work on a part-time volunteer basis without stipend. Like all members, they are asked to donate a tithe of 10 percent of their income to the church. An exception to that rule is for LDS missionaries who work at the local level and are paid basic living expenses from a fund that receives contributions from their families or home congregations; however, prospective missionaries are encouraged to contribute the cost of their missions to this fund themselves when possible. Members volunteer general custodial work for local church facilities. All males who are living the standards of the church are generally considered for the priesthood and are ordained to the priesthood as early as age 12. Ordination occurs by a ceremony where hands are laid on the head of the one ordained. The priesthood is divided into an Aaronic priesthood for young men 12 and up and a Melchizedek priesthood for men 18 and up. Programs and auxiliary organizations: Under the leadership of the priesthood hierarchy are five auxiliary organizations that fill various roles in the church: Relief Society (a women's organization), the Young Men and Young Women organizations (for adolescents ages 12 to 18), Primary (an organization for children up to age 12), and Sunday School (which provides a variety of Sunday classes for adolescents and adults). Women serve as presidents and counselors in the presidencies of the Relief Society, Young Women, and Primary, while men serve as presidents and counselors of the Young Men and Sunday School. The church also operates several programs and organizations in the fields of proselytizing, education, and church welfare such as LDS Humanitarian Services. Many of these auxiliaries and programs are coordinated by the Priesthood Correlation Program, which is designed to provide a systematic approach to maintain worldwide consistency, orthodoxy, and control of the church's ordinances, doctrines, organizations, meetings, materials, and other programs and activities. The church operates a Church Educational System which includes Brigham Young University (BYU) (and its associated Jerusalem Center), BYU–Idaho, BYU–Hawaii, and LDS Business College. The church also operates Institutes of Religion near the campuses of many colleges and universities. For high-school aged youth, the church operates a four-year Seminary program, which provides religious classes for students to supplement their secular education. The church also sponsors a low-interest educational loan program known as the Perpetual Education Fund, which provides educational opportunities to students from developing nations. The church's welfare system, initiated during the Great Depression, provides aid to the poor. It is financed by fast offerings: monthly donations beyond the normal 10 percent tithe, which represents the cost of forgoing two meals on monthly Fast Sundays. Money from the program is used to operate Bishop's storehouses, which package and store food at low cost. Distribution of funds and food is administered by local bishops. The church also distributes money through its LDS Philanthropies division to disaster victims worldwide. Other church programs and departments include LDS Family Services, which provides assistance with adoption, marital and family counseling, psychotherapy, and addiction counseling; the LDS Church History Department, which collects church history and records; and the Family History Department, which administers the church's large family history efforts, including the world's largest family history library and organization (FamilySearch). The church is also a major sponsor of Scouting programs for boys, particularly in the United States, where it provides more members of the Boy Scouts of America than any other church. Finances: Although the church has not released church-wide financial statements since 1959, in 1997, Time magazine called it one of the world's wealthiest churches per capita. In a June 2011 cover story, Newsweek stated that the LDS Church "resembles a sanctified multinational corporation—the General Electric of American religion, with global ambitions and an estimated net worth of $30 billion." Its for-profit, non-profit, and educational subsidiary entities are audited by an independent accounting firm: as of 2007, some done by Deloitte & Touche. In addition, the church employs an independent audit department that provides its certification at each annual general conference that church contributions are collected and spent in accordance with church policy. The church receives significant funds from tithes and fast offerings. According to the church, tithing and fast offering money collected are devoted to ecclesiastical purposes and not used in for-profit ventures. The church has also invested in for-profit business and real estate ventures such as Bonneville International, Deseret Book Company, City Creek Center, and cattle ranches in Utah, Florida, Nebraska, Canada and other locations. Culture: Due to the differences in lifestyle promoted by church doctrine and history, a distinct culture has grown up around members of the LDS Church. It is primarily concentrated in the Intermountain West, but as membership of the church spreads around the world, many of its more distinctive practices follow, such as adhering to the Word of Wisdom, a health law or code prohibiting the consumption of tobacco, alcohol, coffee, tea, and illegal drugs. As a result of the Word of Wisdom, the culture in areas of the world with a high concentration of LDS tends to be reflected. Meetings and outreach programs are held regularly and have become part of Latter-day Saint culture. Media and arts: The culture has created substantial business opportunities for independent LDS media. Such communities include cinema, fiction, websites, and graphical art like photography and paintings. The church owns a chain of bookstores called Deseret Book, which provide a channel through which publications are sold. Titles including The Work and the Glory and The Other Side of Heaven have found acceptance both within and outside the church; BYU TV, the church-sponsored television station, also airs on several networks. The church also produces six pageants annually depicting various events of the primitive and modern-day church. Its Easter pageant Jesus the Christ has been identified as the "largest annual outdoor Easter pageant in the world." No question the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is "having a moment" ... The Twilight vampire novels of Mormon Stephenie Meyer sell tens of millions of copies, Mormon convert Glenn Beck inspires daily devotion and outrage with his radio show, and HBO generated lots of attention with the Big Love finale. Even Broadway has gotten in on the act, giving us The Book of Mormon, a big-budget musical about Mormon missionaries by South Park creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone and Avenue Q writer Robert Lopez that, with 14 nominations, is expected to clean up at the (2011) Tony Awards on June 12.| Newsweek magazine, June 2011 Home and family: In 1995, the church's First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve issued "The Family: A Proclamation to the World", which stresses the importance of the family. The proclamation states that "marriage between a man and a woman is ordained of God and that the family is central to the Creator's plan for the eternal destiny of His children." The document further says that "gender is an essential characteristic of individual premortal, mortal, and eternal identity and purpose," that the father and mother have differing but equal roles in raising children, and that successful marriages and families, founded upon the teachings of Jesus Christ, can last eternally. This document is widely cited by LDS members as a statement of principle. The adult women (members of the church's Relief Society) in a congregation meet at least quarterly for additional instruction and service. The meetings may consist of a service project, conferences, or of various classes being offered. After interviewing and polling thousands of youth across America, evangelical statistician Christian Smith writes, "in general comparisons among major U.S. religious traditions using a variety of sociological measures of religious vitality and salience .... it is Mormon teenagers who are sociologically faring the best." Social events and gatherings: In addition to these regularly scheduled meetings, additional meetings are frequently held at the meetinghouse. Auxiliary officers may conduct leadership meetings or host training sessions and classes. The ward or branch community may schedule social activities at the meetinghouse, including dances, dinners, holiday parties and musical presentations. The church's Young Men and Young Women organizations meet at the meetinghouse once a week, where the youth participate in activities and work on Duty to God, Scouting, or Personal Progress. Other popular activities are basketball, family history conferences, youth and singles conferences, dances, and various personal improvement classes. Church members may also reserve meetinghouses at no cost for weddings, receptions, and funerals. In the summer, the LDS Church hosts week-long seminars throughout North America known as Especially for Youth (EFY). This program is held Monday through Saturday during the summer months for youth ages 14–18. During this week, youth often spend the night in college campus dorms and the day in various classes taught by adult religious educators, as well as participating in other various activities such as scripture study and dances. Political involvement: The LDS Church will take no partisan role in politics, stating that it will not "endorse, promote or oppose political parties, candidates or platforms; allow its church buildings, membership lists or other resources to be used for partisan political purposes; attempt to direct its members as to which candidate or party they should give their votes to ... or attempt to direct or dictate to a government leader." While the church takes an apolitical approach to the candidates themselves, it encourages its members to play an active role as responsible citizens in their communities, including becoming informed about issues and voting in elections, and it actively works to counter anti-Mormonism that may come up during political campaigns. A 2012 Pew Center on Religion and Public Life survey indicates that 74 percent of U.S. members lean towards the Republican Party. Some liberal members say they feel that they have to defend their worthiness due to political differences. Referring to the 2012 U.S Republican Presidential Primary, Michael Otterson, the LDS Church's managing director for public affairs stated, "We now have two Latter-day Saints running, and the potential for misunderstanding or missteps is therefore twice what it was before." However, the official church stance on staying out of politics does not include what church leaders deem to be moral issues. It has previously opposed same-sex marriage in California Prop 8, supported a gay rights bill in Salt Lake City which bans discrimination against homosexual persons in housing and employment, opposed gambling, opposed storage of nuclear waste in Utah, and supported the Utah Compact. In United States politics, there are 16 members of the church serving in the 114th United States Congress, including the Senate Minority Leader, Harry Reid, and one member serving as a state governor (Gary Herbert, Utah). Church member Mitt Romney was the Republican Party's nominee in the U.S. 2012 presidential election and was defeated by incumbent U.S. President Barack Obama. Jon Huntsman, Jr. also sought the Republican nomination until his withdrawal in early 2012. Humanitarian services: The LDS Church is widely known for its worldwide humanitarian services. The church's welfare and humanitarian efforts are coordinated by LDS Philanthropies (LDSP), a church department under the direction of the Presiding Bishopric. Welfare efforts, originally initiated during the Great Depression, provide aid for the poor, financed by donations from church members. LDSP is also responsible for philanthropic donations to the LDS Church and other affiliated charities, such as the Church History Library, the Church Educational System—which includes Brigham Young University, the Perpetual Education Fund, and the Polynesian Cultural Center—the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, and efforts dedicated to providing funds for LDS missionaries and temple construction. Donations are also used to operate bishop's storehouses, which package and store food for the poor at low cost. Distribution of funds and food is administered by local bishops. These local storehouses distribute commodities to the needy as requested by local bishops on a specified form. Bishop's storehouses also provide service opportunities for those receiving assistance and for those desiring to serve missions or to volunteer in the church's welfare program. The day-to-day operations of the storehouses are typically run by senior-aged missionaries as store managers. The church also distributes money through its Humanitarian Services division to natural disaster victims worldwide. The church's Humanitarian Center, established in 1991, prepares emergency relief supplies for worldwide shipment to disaster victims, works to establish a global sense of self-reliance, and offers service opportunities to both church members and non-members. The emergency relief supplies that the church donates typically include clothing, personal care kits, and medical supplies. According to the LDS Humanitarian Center website, it ships about 12 million pounds of shoes and clothing, one million hygiene kits, and one million pounds of medical supplies per year, to relieve suffering in more than 100 countries. When a disaster strikes, the church works with local government officials and other organizations to determine the immediate needs, and sends the necessary supplies and food to the affected area within hours. Missionaries are then sent to help alleviate other long-term damages by assisting injured persons and reconstructing damaged buildings. The church carries out these efforts without regard to the nationality or religion of the recipients, and 100 percent of the financial contributions donated to the church by members and non-members are used for humanitarian purposes. The church has been involved in providing relief aid for victims of several disasters in recent years, including Hurricane Katrina, the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Christchurch earthquake, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In 2005 the church partnered with Catholic Relief Services to provide aid for struggling families and individuals in Niger, and it has also partnered with Islamic Relief to help victims of flooding in Pakistan. In addition, the church sponsors five global projects (neonatal resuscitation training, clean water projects, wheelchair distribution, vision treatment, and measles vaccinations), and works with local government agencies and other religious and secular organizations such as the American Red Cross and UNICEF to accomplish these needs. In 2003 the church joined Measles Initiative and has committed one million dollars per year to the campaign. Controversy and criticism: The LDS Church has been subject to criticism and sometimes discrimination since its early years in New York and Pennsylvania. In the late 1820s, criticism centered around the claim by Joseph Smith to have been led to a set of golden plates from which the Book of Mormon was reputedly translated. In the 1830s, the greatest criticism was for Smith's handling of a banking failure in Kirtland, Ohio, and the LDS Church's political and military power in Missouri, culminating in the 1838 Mormon War. In the 1840s, criticism of the church centered on its theocratic aspirations in Nauvoo, Illinois. Criticism of the practice of plural marriage and other doctrines taught by Smith appeared in the Nauvoo Expositor, which led to a series of events culminating in Smith's murder in 1844. As the church began openly practicing plural marriage under Brigham Young during the second half of the 19th century, the church became the target of nationwide criticism for that practice, as well as for the church's theocratic aspirations in the Utah Territory. Beginning in 1857, the church also came under significant media criticism after the Mountain Meadows massacre in southern Utah. Academic critics have questioned the legitimacy of Smith as a prophet as well as the historical authenticity of the Book of Mormon and the Book of Abraham. Criticism has expanded to include claims of historical revisionism, homophobia, racism, and sexist policies. Notable 20th-century critics include Jerald and Sandra Tanner and Fawn Brodie. Evangelical Christians continue to argue that Smith was either fraudulent or delusional. Mormon apologetics organizations, such as the Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research (FAIR) and the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS), have been founded to counter these criticisms. Most of the apologetic work focuses on providing and discussing evidence supporting the claims of Smith and the Book of Mormon, and much of it features criticism of the perceived lack of honesty when it comes to the scholarship of non-Mormon critics. Scholars and authors such as Hugh Nibley, Daniel C. Peterson, Jeff Lindsay, Orson Scott Card, and James E. Talmage are well-known apologists within the church. In recent years, the Internet has provided a new forum for proponents and critics of religions, including the LDS Church. The church's support in 2008 of California's Proposition 8 sparked heated debate and protest by gay-rights organizations and others. The church expressed support for a Salt Lake City ordinance protecting members of the LGBT community against discrimination in employment and housing while allowing religious institutions to consider lifestyles in actions such as hiring or providing university accommodations. Jewish groups criticized the LDS Church in 1995 after discovering that vicarious baptisms for the dead for victims of the Holocaust had been performed by members of the church. After that criticism, church leaders put a policy in place to stop the practice, with an exception for baptisms specifically requested or approved by victims' relatives. Jewish organizations again criticized the church in 2002, 2004, 2008, and 2012 stating that the church failed to honor the 1995 agreement. The LDS Church says it has put institutional safeguards in place to avoid the submission of the names of Holocaust victims not related to Mormon members, but that the sheer number of names submitted makes policing the database of names impractical. Due to doctrinal differences, the LDS Church is generally considered to be distinct and separate from mainstream Christianity by Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant churches, which express differences with one another but consider each other's churches as Christian. Many have accused the LDS Church of not being a Christian church at all as a result of disagreements with Apostolic succession and the "Great Apostasy", the Nicene Creed, separation of the Godhead and, more so, Mormon cosmology and its Plan of Salvation including the doctrines of pre-mortal life, baptism for the dead, three degrees of heaven, and exaltation.

Loose skin

Apparently, when you lose tons of weight you'll have tons of loose skin.

Mormonism and Christianity

Mormonism and Christianity have a complex theological, historical, and sociological relationship. Mormons express the doctrines of Mormonism using standard biblical terminology, and have similar views about the nature of Jesus' atonement, bodily resurrection, and Second Coming as traditional Christianity. Nevertheless, most Mormons do not accept the Trinitarian views of orthodox Nicene Christianity, codified in the eponymous Nicene and Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creeds of 325 and 381. Though Mormons consider the Bible as scripture, they do not believe in biblical inerrancy. They have also adopted additional scriptures, including the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. Mormons practice baptism and celebrate the Eucharist, but they also participate in religious rituals not practiced by traditional Christianity. Focusing on differences, some Christians consider Mormonism "non-Christian", and Mormons, focusing on similarities, are offended at being so characterized. Mormons do not accept non-Mormon baptism nor do non-Mormon Christians usually accept Mormon baptism. Mormons regularly proselytize individuals actually or nominally within the Christian tradition, and some Christians, especially evangelicals, proselytize Mormons. A prominent scholarly view is that Mormonism is a form of Christianity, but is distinct enough from traditional Christianity so as to form a new religious tradition, much as Christianity is more than just a sect of Judaism. The Mormonism that originated with Joseph Smith in the 1820s shared strong similarities with some elements of nineteenth-century Protestant Christianity. Mormons believe that God, through Smith and his successors, restored various doctrines and practices that were lost from the original Christianity taught by Jesus. For example, Smith, as a result of his "First Vision", primarily rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity and instead taught that God the Father, His son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost are three distinct "personages"—Jesus Christ and the Father having glorified immortalized bodies and the Holy Ghost a spirit body. While the largest Mormon denomination The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), acknowledges its differences with mainstream Christianity, it also focuses on its commonalities such as its focus on faith in Christ, following the teachings of Jesus Christ, the miracle of the atonement, and many other doctrines. Doctrinal comparison: With roots within radical Protestantism of the 1820s and 1830s,[6] Mormonism soon diverged dramatically from traditional Christianity. Early Joseph Smith era: Mormonism arose in the 1820s during a period of radical reform and experimentation within American Protestantism, and Mormonism is integrally connected to that religious environment. As a form of Christian primitivism, the new faith was one among several contemporary religious movements that claimed to restore Christianity to its condition at the time of the Twelve Apostles. The Book of Mormon: The Book of Mormon (1830), which reflects the earliest Mormon doctrine, was intended, in part, to settle ongoing doctrinal disputes among contemporary Christian denominations and to create a single shared theology. Joseph Smith believed in the importance of the Bible and shared the Protestant tradition that the Bible (excluding the Apocrypha) was revealed by God to humanity without error and contained the "fulness of the gospel." Nevertheless, Smith believed the Bible of his era had degenerated from its original form. Smith blamed the Catholic Church for the loss of biblical books and for introducing corruptions and obfuscations in the biblical text. Smith said that the Book of Mormon revealed "plain and precious things that had been taken away" from the Bible. Smith also completed an unpublished revision of the Bible in 1833, which he said corrected many of these errors, and added inspired commentary. Smith endowed the Book of Mormon with a status equal to that of the Bible. Nature of God: Views on the Nature of God in early Mormonism has been a matter of debate. Thomas G. Alexander argues that early Mormon theology was "essentially trinitarian," A statement in the Lectures on Faith is used to defend this belief: There are two personages who constitute the great, matchless, governing, and supreme power over all things, by whom all things were created and made, that are created and made..They are the Father and the Son-the Father being a personage of spirit, glory, and power possessing all perfection and fullness, the Son, who was in the bosom of the Father, a personage of tabernacle. Robert L. Millet suggests that Smith simply had not had God's physical nature revealed to him when he gave the lecture: It is possible that Joseph Smith simply did not understand the corporeal or physical nature of God at the time the Lectures on Faith were delivered. His knowledge of things-like that of all men and women-was often incremental, and his development in understanding was therefore a "line upon line" development. As a result of the First Vision, the boy prophet knew that the heavens were no longer sealed; that satan was more than myth or metaphor; and that the Father and Son were separate and distinct personages. Millet also argues that a statement by Truman Coe in 1836 reinforces the idea that early Mormon doctrine differed from the orthodox Protestantism of the day: They (The Mormons) believe that the true God is a material being, composed of body and parts; and that when the Creator formed Adam in his own image, he made him about the size and shape of God himself. Kurt Widmer stated that "early Mormons were reacting against a heavily intellectualized and theologized Trinitarian concept of God" and the nature of God was not at first of central importance to Smith. Other points of doctrine: Early Mormon soteriology, although not following a preexisting tradition, was generally Arminian in tendency. Early Mormonism agreed with Methodists and the Disciples of Christ in rejecting Calvinistic doctrines of election in favor of Christian perfection and free will. Also, while the Book of Mormon affirmed the doctrine of original sin, it agreed with other Arminian denominations that children, though inherently depraved, are incapable of sin. Like other Christian primitivists, Smith located the authority of Christianity in correct interpretation of the Bible—although he also maintained (as did the Shakers) that interpretation of the Bible should be guided by new and continuing revelation. Initially, the authority of Smith's faith was based on correct doctrine and his own claim of prophethood. Then during the early 1830s, Smith added to this authority apostolic succession, represented by apostles and prophets who Smith said had ordained him. Late–Joseph Smith era: From the mid-1830s to his death in 1844, Smith continued to introduce ideas and practices which differed significantly from traditional Protestantism. First, Smith pressed Christian perfection beyond Protestant orthodoxy. He followed non-Protestant Christians in rejecting the doctrine of justification by faith alone and moved toward universalism by introducing a hierarchy of three glorious heavens, in which even the wicked had a place. In the late 1830s, Smith introduced baptism for the dead by proxy as a means to allow unredeemed souls to accept salvation in the afterlife, and he also taught that the ordinance of marriage was required to reach the highest level of salvation. Seeking to relate Mormonism with Calvinistic ideas of assured salvation, Smith introduced a second anointing ritual, after which a participant was guaranteed virtually unconditional salvation. In his later years Smith also differed from traditional Protestantism in his views on the nature of God and humanity. Eventually Smith reduced the difference between God and man to one of degree. Both God and man are coeternal and uncreated. He taught that humans could progress to an exalted state in which they became coequal with a God who was material, plural, and himself a glorified man existing within time. Smith taught that both God the Father and Jesus were distinct beings with physical bodies, and that the Holy Spirit was a personage of Spirit. Because God had once been a man who had risen to a high position in heaven, humans too could progress to godhood. Such a teaching implied a vast hierarchy of gods who would rule kingdoms of inferior intelligences, and so forth in an eternal hierarchy. Unlike the god of traditional Christianity, the god envisioned by Smith did not create the eternal spirits of humanity—he only organized them and provided them with a plan to follow in his footsteps. God was God not because he was an ex nihilo creator, but because he had the greatest intelligence. Pioneer Mormonism: After Smith's death, his successor Brigham Young and others built upon Smith's late teachings and introduced more significant doctrinal innovations. The resulting religious tradition defined the Mormonism of the Mormon pioneer era in the 19th century. An important part of this pioneer Mormonism is the Adam–God doctrine, which became the most prominent (but not exclusive) theology of 19th-century Mormonism. Young taught that God the Father was Adam, a mortal man resurrected and exalted to godhood. Proponents of this doctrine believed that Father Adam, as the subordinate member of a three-god council, created the earth. Adam was both the common ancestor and the father of all spirits born on the earth. After ascending again to his heavenly throne, Adam returned to physically father Jesus by Mary. Many of the distinctive elements of 19th-century Mormonism, including polygamy and the Adam–God doctrine, were renounced around the turn of the 20th century by the LDS Church. However, these elements have been retained within the small branch of Mormonism known as Mormon fundamentalism. Modern LDS Church orthodoxy: Near the turn of the 20th century there was a significant transformation of LDS theology as partially revealed in its renunciation of polygamy. In addition, prominent Mormons such as B. H. Roberts, John A. Widstoe, and James E. Talmage formulated the outlines of a new Mormon orthodoxy, synthesizing competing doctrinal elements from the era of Joseph Smith and Brigham Young that continues to be accepted by most modern Mormons. Nature of God and humanity: In traditional Christianity, as expressed in the Athanasian Creed, God is conceived both as a unity and a Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit are described as three persons of one uncreated divine being, equally infinite, eternal, and unchangeable. Though modern Mormons share with traditional Christianity a belief that the object of their worship comprises three distinct persons who are "co-eternal" in a sense, most Mormons disagree that the three persons of their "Godhead" are the same being, that they are infinite, and that they are unchangeable. Mormons are constrained by the language of the Book of Mormon to regard the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as "one", but to Mormons, this "oneness" does not have the same meaning as within traditional Christianity. Modern Mormons regard God as plural. They regard God the Father as the biblical god Elohim, and they believe that the Son, a distinct being, is both Jesus and the biblical god Jehovah. The two of them, together with the Holy Spirit, are believed to form a heavenly council which Mormons call the "Godhead". They are "one" in the sense of being lovingly united in purpose or will, a view sometimes called social trinitarianism. Unlike traditional Christians, modern Mormons do not regard the Father and the Son as co-equal; rather, they generally regard the Son as subordinate to the Father. Unlike traditional Christianity, Mormons since the 1840s have believed that God is changeable. They believe that the Father (like the Son) was twice "born"—once as a spirit, and again as a mortal man. After he lived a mortal life, Mormons believe that the Father died, was resurrected, and achieved his godhood along with at least one wife whom Mormons refer to as the Heavenly Mother. Some believe that the Heavenly Father and Mother gave birth to the spirits of humanity through a sexual union. Modern Mormons believe that Jesus, the Son, was the first born of these spirits. Thus, while Mormons might agree with the statement that the Father and the Son are "uncreated", their understanding of "creation" differs from that of traditional Christianity. Mormons do not believe, as do traditional Christians, that God created the universe ex nihilo (from nothing). Rather, to Mormons the act of creation is to organize or reorganize pre-existing matter or intelligence. Traditional Christians consider God to be a "necessary being", meaning that he cannot not exist, while all other creations are "contingent beings". In Mormonism, by contrast, every god and human is equally a necessary being. The Mormon sense of "eternal" differs from that of traditional Christians, who believe that God's eternal nature exists outside of space and time. Some situate the Mormon God within space and time. However, Mormon scripture states that "time is measured only unto man." They believe that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are "co-eternal", but they also believe that all of humanity is "co-eternal" with the Father in the sense that the underlying spark of all intelligence has always existed (in space and time) and never was created. Mormons believe that God is scrutable through revelation, and anthropomorphic, in that he has a physical body of flesh and bone. Although Mormons do believe in traditional Christian notions that God is omnipotent and omniscient, modern Mormons also believe that "even God's omnipotence must conform to the attributes of truth and wisdom and justice and mercy". Salvation: Although the LDS Church has never officially adopted a doctrine of soteriology, most Mormons accept the doctrine of salvation formulated by B. H. Roberts, John A. Widstoe, and James E. Talmage in the early 20th century. In contrast to early Mormons, modern Mormons generally reject the idea of original sin. The Fall of Man is viewed not as a curse but as part of God's Plan of Salvation. Mormons believe they must not only have faith and repent but also be baptized (by immersion and by a Mormon priesthood holder) and bring forth good works. Mormons consider their weekly Eucharist (the Sacrament) as a means of renewing their baptism and being repeatedly cleansed from sin. Although the grace of Jesus plays a role in salvation, each Mormon must "work out his own salvation". Mormons believe that people not baptized during their lifetime may accept salvation in the afterlife through the Mormon practice of baptism for the dead. Although the Book of Mormon rejected the doctrine of universal reconciliation, Smith later taught that damnation was a temporary state from which the wicked would ultimately escape after they had paid for their sins, to be resurrected into one of the two lesser kingdoms of glory. Mormonism takes an extended view of Christian perfection, asserting that through the grace of Jesus, Mormons may become perfectly sanctified and thereby literally become gods or achieve a state known as exaltation. To achieve exaltation, Mormons must remain obedient to the teachings of Jesus, receive all the ordinances (or sacraments), which includes baptism, confirmation, receiving the Melchizedek priesthood (for males), the temple endowment, and being sealed to a spouse. To "make sure" the election of believers, Smith introduced a second anointing ritual, whose participants, upon continued obedience, were sealed to exaltation. Role of the church: Like Catholicism and Orthodoxy, Mormonism assigns considerable authoritative status to church tradition and ecclesiastical leadership.[88] Mormons emphasize the authority of an institutional church, which in all Mormon denominations derives from the Church of Christ established by Joseph Smith in 1830. Mormons believe this church to be the "only true and living church." Below Jesus as the head of the church is a single man chosen as the "Prophet" who holds the position of President of the Church. The Prophet has been compared to the Pope in Catholicism because both, within their respective faiths, are regarded as the leading authority. Mormons also believe in apostolic succession. However, Mormons believe the Catholic line of succession is invalid because of a Great Apostasy that occurred soon after era of the apostles. The line of succession was restored through Joseph Smith when biblical prophets and apostles appeared to him and ordained him through the laying on of hands with lost priesthood authority. Thus, Mormons believe that non-Mormon clergy have no heavenly authority and that sacraments performed by clergy of other faiths are of no effect in the eyes of God.[89] Mormons reject the Protestant doctrine of the "priesthood of all believers", but they consider all confirmed Mormons to have the "Gift of the Holy Ghost" (also conveyed by the laying on of hands), which entitles believers to spiritual gifts but to no ecclesiastical authority. Mormon neo-orthodoxy: In the late-20th century, a conservative trend within the LDS Church (called "Mormon neo-orthodoxy" on the analogy of an earlier Protestant neo-orthodoxy) emphasized the Book of Mormon over later revelations and embraced original sin, an absolute, eternal, and unchanging God, a pessimistic assessment of human nature, and a doctrine of salvation by grace rather than by works. Despite the book's importance to early Mormonism, early Mormons rarely quoted from the Book of Mormon in their speeches and writings. Joseph Smith's later teachings and writings focused on the Bible, including his own revision and commentary of the Authorized King James Version. The book was not regularly cited in Mormon conferences until the 1980s. Within the LDS Church, a movement to re-emphasize the Jesus-based elements of Mormonism in the 1980s included a rediscovery of the Book of Mormon. In 1982, the church subtitled the book "Another Testament of Jesus Christ", to emphasize that Jesus was a central focus of the book and that the book is intended to be a complement to the Bible. Although Mormon neo-orthodox scholars say they have faced "resistance" from Mormon orthodoxy, the tendency of the movement is consistent with a broader trend among the LDS hierarchy to present Mormonism in terms more acceptable to mainline Christianity. Because Mormonism is not based on an authoritative systematic theology, and much of Mormon scripture was written when Mormonism was "essentially trinitarian", Mormon leaders and apologists have been able to deny that at least some of 20th-century orthodox Mormonism represents official Mormon doctrine. Moreover, LDS Church publications and a few Mormon scholars have increasingly used the language of Nicene Christianity to describe the nature of God. Christian views about Mormons: In the past, most mainstream Christian denominations rejected Mormonism outright, frequently calling it a cult and characterizing it as "non-Christian." Although mainstream Christian denominations still reject Mormons as being non-Christian, the image of Mormonism has metamorphosed during the 20th century in large part due to an evolution of Mormon theology and partly due to a deliberate effort on the part of the leadership of the LDS Church. According to Jan Shipps, during the 1950s the attitude of mainstream Christians towards Mormonism changed from "vilification" to "veneration," with emphasis on positive Mormon traits such as "family orientation, clean-cut optimism, honesty and pleasant aggressiveness." Richard Abanes attributes an "increasing lack of delineation between (Mormonism and mainstream Christianity)" to three primary causes: -the willingness of some Mormon leaders to be less than candid about more controversial aspects of LDS history and theology, -a trend among some Mormon scholars to make LDS belief sound more mainstream, and -an evolution of Mormon thought toward doctrinal positions nearer those of evangelicals. Richard Bushman asserts that, for many people, Mormonism "conjures up an assortment of contradictory images". One set of images suggests that Mormons are "happy, uncomplicated, kindly and innocent—if perhaps naive". In contrast to this set of images, Bushman describes a set of associations that focuses on "a powerful religious hierarchy controlling the church from the top". This perspective views Mormons as "secretive, clannish and perhaps dangerous", often labeling the movement as a "cult rather than a church". Stephen E. Robinson has argued that Mormons are labeled heretics "for opinions and practices that are freely tolerated in other mainstream denominations." Mormonism has a particularly rocky relationship with American Evangelical Christianity. However, the view of Mormonism being non-Christian or a cult is not a uniformly held belief among Evangelicals, especially with those that have personal experience with Mormons in their community. Richard J. Mouw, President of Fuller Theological Seminary, an evangelical school in Pasadena, California, stated in a recent opinion piece for CNN, "those of us who have made the effort to engage Mormons in friendly and sustained give-and-take conversations have come to see them as good citizens whose life of faith often exhibits qualities that are worthy of the Christian label, even as we continue to engage in friendly arguments with them about crucial theological issues." William Saletan has been more blunt about this, stating "why don’t we challenge anti-Mormonism? Because it’s the prejudice of our age." Joe Scarborough has drawn analogies between the Pharisees in the New Testament and prominent evangelical religious leader Robert Jeffress calling Mormonism a cult. Non-recognition of Mormon rites- LDS perspective: Latter Day Saint history comes from the position that other churches were the product of the apostasy, as referenced in the Bible. Mormons view other Christian churches as teaching some truth, doing good works, and acknowledge their strong faith in Christ. However, Mormons also maintain that all other churches lack the divine authority to perform the ordinances of the gospel because of the Great Apostasy. The LDS Church and most other Latter Day Saint factions do not accept the baptisms of other Christian denominations as valid. However, the Community of Christ is engaged in ongoing informal discussions concerning this issue. Traditional perspective: The Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant branches of Christianity reject Mormon claims of additional scriptures, and of the prophetic office of Joseph Smith and other Mormon leaders; they disagree with Mormon charges that they have committed apostasy. Doctrines such as the beliefs about early American civilizations, which are unique to Mormon theology and not found in the teachings of other Christian churches are also causes of disagreement. Nonetheless, many Christian denominations treat Mormons with respect, while not minimizing the differences in belief. In 2001, in the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican's Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith decided not to accept Latter-day Saint baptisms as valid. The Catholic Church generally recognizes baptisms from other Christian faiths in the name of the Trinity, provided the person baptizing intends to do as the Church intends. However, because of differences in Mormon and Catholic beliefs concerning the Trinity, the Catholic Church stated that Mormon baptism was "not the baptism that Christ instituted." The Catholic Bishop of Salt Lake City, George Hugh Niederauer, stated that this ruling should not be a statement of the LDS relationship with Jesus Christ. The Presbyterian Church USA, the largest Presbyterian body in the United States, publishes a brochure describing the LDS Church as follows: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, like the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), declares allegiance to Jesus. Latter-day Saints and Presbyterians share use of the Bible as scripture, and members of both churches use common theological terms. Nevertheless, Mormonism is a new and emerging religious tradition distinct from the historic apostolic tradition of the Christian Church, of which Presbyterians are a part. ... It is the practice of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) to receive on profession of faith those coming directly from a Mormon background and to administer baptism. ... Presbyterian relationships with Latter-day Saints have changed throughout the twentieth century. By God's grace they may change further. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran body in the US, notes that Lutherans have been among those Christians who do not re-baptize other baptized Christians; however, it publishes the following statement on the recognition of Mormon baptisms: Although Mormons may use water—and lots of it—and while they may say "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit," their teaching about the nature of God is substantially different from that of orthodox, creedal Christianity. Because the Mormon understanding of the Word of God is not the same as the Christian understanding, it is correct to say that Christian Baptism has not taken place. In its 2000 General Conference, the United Methodist Church decided not to recognize Latter-day Saint baptisms, stating: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, by self-definition, does not fit within the bounds of the historic, apostolic tradition of Christian faith. This conclusion is supported by the fact that the LDS Church itself, while calling itself Christian, explicitly professes a distinction and separateness from the ecumenical community and is intentional about clarifying significant differences in doctrine. As United Methodists we agree with their assessment that the LDS Church is not a part of the historic, apostolic tradition of the Christian faith. The Episcopal Church (USA), part of the 80-million-member Anglican Communion, also does not recognize Mormon baptisms, though it recognizes Christian baptisms that are Trinitarian in nature. However, Daniel Tuttle, the Episcopal Church's first bishop of Utah, decided not to require re-baptism of LDS converts, and that practice continues today among most Episcopal clergy.[citation needed] As with the United Methodist Church, the Episcopal Church does not recognize Mormons as historic Apostolic Christians, but rather as a new and unique religious movement that is an offshoot of Christianity. Proselytizing of Mormons by evangelical Christians: Many other Christian churches also seek to teach or convert Mormons when the opportunity arises. Traditional Christian leaders often encourage their followers to follow the admonition of and witness to others using gentleness and respect. Like their Mormon counterparts, those from the traditional Christian religions assert that these proselytizing efforts arise out of love and genuine concern for others and not a desire to cause contention. Consequently, though the feelings may be strong, there is often a feeling of mutual appreciation and respect that accompanies missionary efforts on both sides (though this is not always the case). Some traditional Christian denominations have ministries focused on Mormons, just as they also have ministries toward Jews, Native Americans, or other demographic groups. For example, the 1998 convention of the Southern Baptist Convention held in Salt Lake City had the stated aim to "bring Christianity to the Mormons." There are also many independent ministries and organizations focused on Mormons. Polls and attitudes: Less than one-third of the general public in the United States believe that Mormons are not Christians. Similar polls have concluded that over two-thirds of the general public view Mormons as members of the larger Christian community, including many independent evangelical ministries and prominent evangelical leaders. However, in an October 2010 poll conducted by LifeWay Research, three out of four American Protestant pastors did not believe that Mormons were Christians. Mormon engagement with broader Christianity: In the 1960s, the LDS Church formed the Church Information Service with the goal of being ready to respond to media inquiries and generate positive media coverage. The organization kept a photo file to provide photos to the media for such events as temple dedications. It also would work to get stories covering Family Home Evening, the church's welfare plan and the church's youth activities in various publications. As part of the church's efforts to re-position its image as that of a mainstream religion, the church began to moderate its earlier anti-Catholic rhetoric. In Bruce R. McConkie's 1958 edition of Mormon Doctrine, he had stated his opinion that the Catholic Church was part of "the church of the devil" and "the great and abominable church" because it was among organizations that misled people away from following God's laws. In his 1966 edition of the same book, the specific reference to the Catholic Church was removed. In 1973, the LDS Church recast its missionary lessons, making them more family-friendly and focused on building on common Christian ideals. The new lessons, named "A Uniform System for Teaching Families", de-emphasized the Great Apostasy, which previously held a prominent position just after the story of the First Vision. After a further revision in the early 1980s, the lessons dealt with the apostasy even less conspicuously by moving its discussion from the first lesson to later lessons. The lessons also became more family-friendly, including a flip chart with pictures, in part to encourage the participation of children. In 1995, the church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words "JESUS CHRIST" in large capital letters, and de-emphasized the words "The Church of" and "of Latter-day Saints". According to Bruce L. Olsen, director of public affairs for the church, "The logo re-emphasizes the official name of the church and the central position of the Savior in its theology. It stresses our allegiance to the Lord, Jesus Christ." In 2001, the church sent out a press release encouraging reporters to use the full name of the church at the beginning of news articles, with following references to the "Church of Jesus Christ". The release discouraged the use of the term "Mormon Church". Downplaying of differences. Riess and Tickle assert that, starting in the late twentieth century, Mormons have focused their attention on Jesus Christ more than at any other time since the inception of their faith. Some critics of the LDS Church have accused church leaders of attempting to disingenuously portray the church as "just another Christian denomination" when, in fact, there are significant differences. Riess and Tickle argue that these critics are failing to grasp that this recent emphasis on Jesus Christ is part of a genuine theological evolution that concurrently involves a renewed interest in the Book of Mormon. Ross Anderson asserts that, "(i)n public, LDS spokesmen downplay their Church's distinctive doctrines." Patricia Limerick suggests that future historians may conclude that, in the last four decades of the 20th, the general authorities of the LDS Church "undertook to standardize Mormon thought and practice". According to Limerick, this campaign of standardization has led to a retreat from the distinctive elements of Mormonism and an accentuation of the church's similarity to conventional Christianity. According to Claudia Bushman, "the renewed emphasis on scripture study, especially the Book of Mormon, led the Church away from speculative theology. The freewheeling General Conference addresses of earlier years, elaborating unique LDS doctrines, were gradually replaced with a basic Christian message downplaying denominational differences." Recent church presidents have tended to downplay those doctrines that served to distinguish Mormonism from mainline churches. Richard Abanes asserts that President Gordon B. Hinckley "on numerous occasions demonstrated his willingness to seriously downplay any issues that might be construed as controversial." In 2001, Hinckley stated that message of the LDS Church was "Christ-centered. Christ is our leader. He's our head. His name is the name of our church." When speaking about other faiths, modern LDS leaders have adopted a policy of avoiding the use of critical and judgmental language in official church publications, and encouraged members of the church to be respectful of the beliefs of others as they witness in their personal lives. When speaking about other faiths, church magazines are often complimentary and focus on providing factual information rather than on sensationalizing or otherwise seeking to undermine the creeds and practices of others. Several presidents of the LDS Church over the years have emphasized the need for Mormons to recognize the good contributions those of other faiths make to the world. Cooperation with other Christian denominations: Ron Rhodes asserts that, "The Mormon church has in recent years sought to downplay its exclusivism as the 'restored' church. Indeed, the Mormon church has increasingly become involved with the Interfaith movement, joining with various Christian denominations in various charities." Traditional Christian denominations and the LDS Church share work in providing welfare or humanitarian aid. In recent years, the LDS Church has opened its broadcasting facilities (Bonneville International) to other Christian groups, and has participated in the VISN Religious Interfaith Cable Television Network. Dialogue with other Christian denominations: There have been independent activities among individuals from both traditions who attempt to discuss openly about issues of faith. In November 2004, Fuller Theological Seminary President Richard Mouw, and Ravi Zacharias, a well known Christian philosophical apologist, addressed a congregation of Mormons and Evangelicals gathered in the Salt Lake Tabernacle for an event sponsored by Standing Together Ministries that was well received despite the differences they acknowledged between Mormonism and the Christian Evangelical perspectives. Proselytization of other Christian denominations: Mormons proselytize to all people, including members of other Christian churches, holding to the belief that God told Joseph Smith "that those professors of religion were all corrupt; that: 'they draw near to me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me, they teach for doctrines the commandments of men, having a form of godliness, but they deny the power thereof.'" Because ministering to those of other Christian faiths can be a sensitive task when feelings on both sides are strong, leaders of the LDS Church have counseled members to be sensitive, to exercise caution, and to avoid contentions in their preaching. Despite the criticisms of other creeds, a tone of respect has consistently been encouraged by Mormon leaders. For example, Wilford Woodruff, an early president of the church and a contemporary of Joseph Smith taught: When you go into a neighborhood to preach the Gospel, never attempt to tear down a man’s house, so to speak, before you build him a better one; never, in fact, attack any one’s religion, wherever you go. Be willing to let every man enjoy his own religion. It is his right to do that. If he does not accept your testimony with regard to the Gospel of Christ, that is his affair, and not yours. Do not spend your time in pulling down other sects and parties. We haven’t time to do that. It is never right to do that. While the LDS Church has been clear about its disagreements with many of the theologies and practices of other religions and seeks actively to convert all people to its own teachings, it has also always adopted a policy of toleration for others and defended the rights of all people to worship God freely. Article 11 of the church's Articles of Faith written by Joseph Smith states, "We claim the privilege of worshiping Almighty God according to the dictates of our own conscience, and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how, where, or what they may." Smith spoke often of the need for Mormons to be civil and courteous in their treatment of others, particularly those who were not of their faith, and to be willing to defend the right of anyone to religious freedom. He said: If we would secure and cultivate the love of others, we must love others, even our enemies as well as friends... I possess the principle of love. All I can offer the world is a good heart and a good hand. The Saints can testify whether I am willing to lay down my life for my brethren. If it has been demonstrated that I have been willing to die for a "Mormon", I am bold to declare before Heaven that I am just as ready to die in defending the rights of a Presbyterian, a Baptist, or a good man of any other denomination. ... It is a love of liberty which inspires my soul. Because Mormon missionaries proselytize to all, including other Christians, some Christian organizations have published tracts, brochures and books designed to counter these missionary efforts. Conciliar Press, a department of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, has published a brochure designed to inform Orthodox Christians of the proselytizing efforts of what it describes as "cultists" (Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses). In 2006, the Catholic bishops in Slovakia urged all Catholics in the country not to sign a petition allowing the LDS Church to be legally recognized in that country.

Forensic dentistry

Forensic dentistry is the application of dental knowledge to those criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system. Forensic dentists are involved in assisting investigative agencies to identify recovered human remains in addition to the identification of whole or fragmented bodies; forensic dentists may also be asked to assist in determining age, race, occupation, previous dental history and socioeconomic status of unidentified human beings. Identification is done by the comparison of ante-mortem and post-mortem dental records and using the unique features visible on dental radiographs. Forensic dentistry or forensic odontology is the proper handling, examination and evaluation of dental evidence, which will be then presented in the interest of justice. The evidence that may be derived from teeth is the age (in children) and identification of the person to whom the teeth belong. This is done using dental records including radiographs, ante-mortem (prior to death) and post-mortem (after death) photographs and DNA. Forensic odontology is derived from Latin, meaning a forum or where legal matters are discussed. The other type of evidence is that of bite marks, left on either the victim (by the attacker), the perpetrator (from the victim of an attack), or on an object found at the crime scene. Bite marks are often found on children who are abused. Forensic dentists are responsible for six main areas of practice: -Identification of found human remains -Identification in mass fatalities -Assessment of bite mark injuries -Assessment of cases of abuse (such as child, spousal or elder abuse) -Civil cases involving malpractice -Age estimation Training- Australia: Postgraduate diploma programs for dentists are available at The University of Melbourne, The University of Western Australia, and The University of Adelaide. UK: Following the closure of the MSc course at the University of Glamorgan, there is now only a single MSc course available in the UK. This is at the University of Dundee in Scotland, which currently has a very limited intake. Background: Forensic odontology is the study of dental applications in legal proceedings. The subject covers a wide variety of topics including individual identification, mass identification, and bite mark analysis. The study of odontology in a legal case can be a piece of incriminating evidence or an aspect of wide controversy. There have been many cases throughout history which have made use of bite marks as evidence. Bite marks are usually seen in cases involving sexual assault, murder, and child abuse and can be a major factor in leading to a conviction. Biting is often a sign of the perpetrator seeking to degrade the victim while also achieving complete domination. Bite marks can be found anywhere on a body, particularly on soft, fleshy tissue such as the stomach or buttocks. In addition, bite marks can be found on objects present at the scene of a crime. Bite marks are commonly found on a suspect when a victim attempts to defend him/herself. High-profile criminal cases- Forensic odontology has played a key role in famous criminal cases: In 1692, during the Salem Witch Trials, Rev. George Burroughs was accused of witchcraft and conspiring with the Devil, with biting his victims supposedly being evidence of his crimes. His bite marks and the bite marks of other people were compared to the victim's marks. The judges readily accepted the bite marks as evidence and this was the first time in what would become the United States that bite marks were used as evidence to solve a crime. He was later convicted and hanged. About two decades later, he was exonerated by the State, and his children compensated for the wrongful execution. In 1870 A.I Robinson was suspected of murdering his mistress. Five bite marks were found on her arm. Charged of murdering his mistress, Ansil Robinson was acquitted despite the fact that evidence matching his teeth to a bite mark on the victim's arm was presented. The bite mark evidence did not hold but by 1890 bite mark evidence started to be recognized in the science field. The contemporary history of bite marks is thought to have started with Sorup. In 1924, Sorup used transparent paper upon which biting edges of a suspect's dentition were rendered to compare with life size photographs of a bite mark. In 1930 in Quebec, Canada had an infant murdered. This was the first case that had bite mark evidence on the skin. One of the first published accounts involving a conviction based on bite marks as evidence was the “Gorringe case”, in 1948, in which pathologist Keith Simpson used bite marks on the breast of the victim to seal a murder conviction against Robert Gorringe for the murder of his wife Phyllis. Another early case was Doyle v. State, which occurred in Texas in 1954. The bite mark in this case was on a piece of cheese found at the crime scene of a burglary. The defendant was later asked to bite another piece of cheese for comparison. A firearms examiner and a dentist evaluated the bite marks independently and both concluded that the marks were made by the same set of teeth. The conviction in this case set the stage for bite marks found on objects and skin to be used as evidence in future cases. Another landmark case was People v. Marx, which occurred in California in 1975. A woman was murdered by strangulation after being sexually assaulted. She was bitten several times on her nose. Walter Marx was identified as a suspect and dental impressions were made of his teeth. Impressions and photographs were also taken of the woman’s injured nose. These samples along with other models and casts were evaluated using a variety of techniques, including two-dimensional and three-dimensional comparisons, and acetate overlays. Three experts testified that the bite marks on the woman’s nose were indeed made by Marx and he was convicted of voluntary manslaughter. -Fredrik Fasting Torgersen -Wayne Boden – an early case of Forensic Dentistry -State of Florida v. Ted Bundy -State of New Jersey v. Jesse Timmendequas (Megan's Law case) -People of California v. Marx, the 1975 case which established evidentiary standards for forensic odontology -People of Arizona v. Ray Krone, bite mark evidence led to a wrongful conviction. Organizations: Four organizations are dedicated to the field of forensic odontology, in the USA. These organizations include: the Bureau of Legal Dentistry (BOLD), the American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO), American Society of Forensic Odontology (ASFO) and the International Organization for Forensic Odonto-Stomatology (IOFOS).Other countries have their own forensic Odontological societies, including the British Association for Forensic Odontology (BAFO) and the Australian Society of Forensic Odontology (AuSFO). In 1996, BOLD was created at the University of British Columbia to develop new technology and techniques in forensic odontology. The University of British Columbia program is the only one in North America that provides graduate training in forensic odontology. The Bureau of Legal Dentistry encourages the use of multiple dental impressions to create a “dental lineup”, similar to a suspect lineup used to identify alleged perpetrators of crime. Currently, dental impressions collected as evidence are compared only to those collected from a given suspect, which may bias the resulting outcome. Using multiple dental impressions in a lineup may enable forensic odontologists to significantly decrease the current bias in matching bite marks to the teeth of a suspect. The organization BOLD also supports the creation of a database of dental records, which could help in verifying dental uniqueness. This database could be created using criminal records or possibly all dental patients. In 1984, the ABFO began making an attempt to diminish the discrepancies and increase the validity of bite mark analysis by creating bite mark methodology guidelines. The guidelines attempt to establish standard terminology in describing bite marks and that reduces the risk of biased results. The ABFO also provides advice on how to effectively collect and preserve evidence. For example, they recommend that the collection of DNA evidence and detailed photographs of bites be taken together at the crime scene. The guidelines also outline how and what a forensic odontologist should record, such as the location, contours, shape, and size of a bite mark. They also provide a system of scoring to assess the degree to which a suspect’s dental profile and bite mark match. According to the ABFO, the guidelines are not a mandate of methods to be used, but a list of generally accepted methods. The guidelines are intended to prevent potentially useful evidence from being thrown out simply because the forensic odontologist’s collection methods were not standardized. Kouble and Craig used a simplified version of the ABFO scoring guidelines in order to retain accuracy with a larger sample of comparisons. A numerical score was assigned to represent the degree of similarity between the bite mark and model/overlay. The higher the score, the greater the similarity. In order to simplify the model, some features that were individually scored in the ABFO guidelines such as arch size and shape were assessed together while certain distinctive features such as spacing between teeth were treated as a separate variable. The authors believe that a simplified version would increase the strength of the comparison process. In an attempt to improve guidelines used to collect dental evidence, IOFOS developed one of the most recognized systems for the collection of forensic dental evidence. Bite mark analysis: Bite-mark evidence has been used as an aid in the identification of criminals in many instances. It is shown how perpetrators of violent injuries were detected from bite marks on the victim or the perpetrator, or on foodstuffs found at the scene of the crime, when the marks were compared to dental impressions taken subsequently’. Upon collection of dental evidence, the forensic odontologist analyzes and compares the bite marks. Studies have been performed in an attempt to find the simplest, most efficient, and most reliable way of analyzing bite marks. Bites can occur on both the victim and the suspect; teeth are used as weapon by the aggressor and in self-defense by the victim. Although they are only a small portion of most forensic dentist’s case load, bite marks represent the most challenging aspect of the discipline. In addition to the location of the bite mark the type of severity of the injury may give investigators clues as to the mental state of the offender.Bite marks may be found on the flesh of victims of a violent attack, particularly on the stomach or buttocks. Alternatively they may be found on the suspect, left by the victim during self-defense. Bite marks can be altered through stretching, movement, or change in environment after the bite. There is also no set standard by which to analyse and compare bite marks. Aside from criminal cases, forensic odontologists and dentists are greatly involved in the identification of victims of mass disasters. Dental records in particular are beneficial in identifying such victims. Factors that may affect the accuracy of bite mark identification include time-dependent changes of the bite mark on living bodies, effects of where the bite mark was found, damage on soft tissue, and similarities in dentition among individuals. Other factors include poor photography, impressions, or measurement of dentition characteristics. Most bite mark analysis studies use porcine skin (pigskin), because it is comparable to the skin of a human, and it is considered unethical to bite a human for study in the United States. Limitations to the bite mark studies include differences in properties of pigskin compared to human skin and the technique of using simulated pressures to create bite marks. Although similar histologically, pigskin and human skin behave in dynamically different ways due to differences in elasticity. Furthermore, postmortem bites on nonhuman skin, such as those used in the experiments of Martin-de-las Heras et al., display different patterns to those seen in antemortem bite injuries. In recognition of the limitations of their study, Kouble and Craig suggest using a G-clamp on an articulator in future studies to standardize the amount of pressure used to produce experimental bite marks instead of applying manual pressure to models on pigskin. Future research and technological developments may help reduce the occurrence of such limitations. Kouble and Craig compared direct methods and indirect methods of bite mark analysis. In the past, the direct method compared a model of the suspect’s teeth to a life-size photograph of the actual bite mark. In these experiments, direct comparisons were made between dental models and either photographs or “fingerprint powder lift-models.” The “fingerprint powder lift” technique involves dusting the bitten skin with black fingerprint powder and using fingerprint tape to transfer the bite marks onto a sheet of acetate. Indirect methods involve the use of transparent overlays to record a suspect’s biting edges. Transparent overlays are made by free-hand tracing the occlusal surfaces of a dental model onto an acetate sheet. When comparing the “fingerprint powder lift” technique against the photographs, the use of photographs resulted in higher scores determined by a modified version of the ABFO scoring guidelines. The use of transparent overlays is considered subjective and irreproducible because the tracing can be easily manipulated. On the other hand, photocopier-generated overlays where no tracing is used is considered to be the best method in matching the correct bite mark to the correct set of models without the use of computer imaging. While the photocopier-generated technique is sensitive, reliable, and inexpensive, new methods involving digital overlays have proven to be more accurate. Two recent technological developments include the 2D polyline method and the painting method. Both methods use Adobe Photoshop. Use of the 2D polyline method entails drawing straight lines between two fixed points in the arch and between incisal edges to indicate the tooth width. Use of the painting method entails coating the incisal edges of a dental model with red glossy paint and then photographing the model. Adobe Photoshop is then used to make measurements on the image. A total of 13 variables were used in analysis. Identification for both methods were based on canine-to-canine distance (1 variable), incisor width (4 variables), and rotational angles of the incisors (8 variables). The 2D polyline method relies heavily on accurate measurements, while the painting method depends on precise overlaying of the images. Although both methods were reliable, the 2D polyline method gave efficient and more objective results. Criticism of bite mark analysis: Recently, the scientific foundation of forensic odontology, and especially bite mark comparison, has been called into question. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63% rate of false identifications. However, the study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting. In February 2016, the Texas Forensic Science Commission recommended that bite mark evidence not be used in criminal prosecutions until it had a more firm scientific basis. An investigative series by the Chicago Tribune entitled "Forensics under the Microscope" examined many forensic science disciplines to see if they truly deserve the air of infallibility that has come to surround them. The investigators concluded that bite mark comparison is always subjective and no standards for comparison have been accepted across the field. The journalists discovered that no rigorous experimentation has been conducted to determine error rates for bite mark comparison, a key part of the scientific method. Critics of bite mark comparison cite the case of Ray Krone, an Arizona man convicted of murder on bite mark evidence left on a woman's breast. DNA evidence later implicated another man and Krone was released from prison. Similarly, Roy Brown was convicted of murder due in part to bite-mark evidence, and freed after DNA testing of the saliva left in the bite wounds matched someone else. Although bite mark analysis has been used in legal proceedings since 1870, it remains a controversial topic due to a variety of factors. DeVore and Barbenel and Evans have shown that the accuracy of a bite mark on skin is limited at best. Skin is not a good medium for dental impressions; it is liable to have a number of irregularities present before the imprint that could cause distortion. Also, bite marks can be altered through stretching, movement or a changing environment during and after the actual bite. Furthermore, the level of distortion tends to increase after the bite mark was made. Both studies suggest that for the bite mark to be accurately analyzed, the body must be examined in exactly the same position it was in when the bite occurred which can be a difficult if not an impossible task to accomplish. Bite mark distortion can rarely be quantified. Therefore, bite marks found at the scene are often analyzed under the assumption that they have undergone minimal distortion. Only limited research has been done in trying to quantify the level of distortion of a bite mark on human skin since the 1970s. The lack of research may largely be due to the fact that such studies are difficult to organize and are very expensive. Bite mark analysis is also controversial because dental profiles are subject to change. The loss of teeth or the alteration of arch configuration through a variety of procedures is common in human populations. The onset of oral diseases such as dental caries has been shown to alter the arch and tooth configuration and must be taken into account when comparing a dental profile to the bite mark after a significant amount of time has passed since the mark was made. While the methods behind collecting bite mark evidence at the scene are leading toward greater standardization, the methodology behind analyzing bite marks is extremely variable because it depends upon the preference of the specific odontologist. As discussed earlier, there are several methods used to compare bite marks ranging from life sized photographs to computer enhanced 3-dimensional imaging. These methods vary in precision and accuracy, and there is no set standard by which to compare or analyze them. The lack of analytical standards leads to a wide array of interpretation with any bite mark evidence. Some odontologists even disagree on whether or not a mark on the body is the result of a bite. Therefore, the interpretation of evidence lies largely on the expertise of the forensic odontologist handling the case. One possible issue facing bite mark analysis is a lack of bite mark uniqueness in any given population. Bite mark analysis is based on the assumptions that the dental characteristics of anterior teeth involved in biting are unique amongst individuals, and this asserted uniqueness is transferred and recorded in the injury. However, there is very little reliable research to support these assumptions. A study performed by MacFarlane et al. supported the notion of dental uniqueness, but the study revolved around the visual assessment of a cast as opposed to the bite mark that could have been produced by the cast. In another study conducted by Sognnaes et al., the group tried to find uniqueness between the dental profiles of identical twins in an attempt to prove dental uniqueness in the general population. However, this study suffered from a small sample size (n=5), with the intent to extrapolate the data to the general population. They also used plaster of paris as the substrate to simulate skin, yet the two materials have very different properties. In a review conducted by Strom, he references a study conducted by Berg and Schaidt which suggested that at least four to five teeth need to be present in the mark to ensure its uniqueness and make a positive identification. However, this study was done long before many of the current evaluation methods, and this sheds doubt on how applicable these conclusions are today. One of the most well known papers attempting to provide empirical data on bite mark uniqueness was done by Rawson et al.In this study, researchers determined that if five teeth marks can be matched to five teeth, it can be said with confidence that only one person could have caused the bite, and if eight teeth were matched to marks this would be a certainty. However, in this study the probabilities used to make this claim are based on the assumption that the position of each tooth was independent of all the others. This is probably unrealistic because there are a number of ways that the dental profile can be changed. For example, braces apply force to specific teeth, in order to shift the placement of multiple teeth. One particular case that highlighted the lack of uniqueness in bite marks involved two suspects accused of attacking a man that had sustained a bite mark injury. Two separate forensic dentists, one representing the prosecution and one the defense, were brought in to analyze the mark. They reported conflicting results. One found the mark to come from suspect A and the other said it was from suspect B. This disagreement resulted from the fact that even though the two suspects had dental features making them unique, the bite mark itself was not detailed enough to reflect them. Therefore, the mark could have reasonably come from either of the men. The equivocal outcome demonstrated in the case emphasizes the difficulty in proving uniqueness. Most of the controversies facing bite mark analysis are due to the lack of empirical supporting evidence. When searching the entire MedLine database from 1960–1999, only 50 papers in English were found that related to bite mark analysis. Of these 50 papers, most of which were published in the 1980s, only 8% came from well designed experimentation providing empirical data. The lack of research has led to the continued use of a few outdated and limited studies to support the validity of bite mark analysis. This brings into question whether or not there is enough scientific support for bite mark analysis to be employed in court. There have been several instances when forensic dentists have made claims, accusations, and guarantees supported by bite mark evaluation that have been proven incorrect through other forensic sciences. DNA analysis has shed some light on the limitations of bite mark analysis because often the DNA from saliva surrounding the area of the bite mark proves to be a more reliable form of identification. In the case of Mississippi vs. Bourne, the DNA of a suspect excluded them from the crime after a dentist claimed the bite marks on the victim matched the defendant’s teeth. DNA sampling has been included as a task for a forensic odontologist. For a crime scene investigator, taking DNA samples is as common as taking pictures of the scene. In the case of State vs. Krone, the defendant was sentenced to death, which was overturned. Then Krone was later reconvicted and given life in prison. Both convictions were based largely on bite mark evidence, but ten years later DNA evidence surfaced that identified the real killer and Krone was set free. Age estimation: Not only can the age of a human specimen be narrowed by evaluating the patterns of tooth eruption and tooth wear, recent studies provide evidence that cementum, the mineralized tissue that lines the surface of tooth roots, exhibits annual patterns of deposition. Aggrawal has presented a comprehensive account.

Disappeared for nearly a month

Last summer i went on vacation and dissapeared for nearly a month. How did no one notice?

Rock or skateboarding

I wonder what will be more awesome at church

Starbucks

Starbucks Corporation is an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain. Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1971. Today it operates 23,768 locations worldwide, including 13,107 (+170) in the United States, 2,204 (+86) in China, 1,418 (-12) in Canada, 1,160 (+2) in Japan and 872 in South Korea (bumping United Kingdom from 5th place) (Differences reflect growth since Jan 8, 2016). Starbucks is considered the main representative of "second wave coffee", initially distinguishing itself from other coffee-serving venues in the US by taste, quality, and customer experience, while popularizing darkly roasted coffee. Since the 2000s, third wave coffee makers have targeted quality-minded coffee drinkers with hand-made coffee based on lighter roasts, while Starbucks nowadays used automated espresso machines for efficiency and safety reasons. Starbucks locations serve hot and cold drinks, whole-bean coffee, microground instant coffee known as VIA, espresso, caffe latte, full- and loose-leaf teas including Teavana tea products, Evolution Fresh juices, Frappuccino beverages, pastries, and snacks; some offerings (including their Pumpkin Spice Latte) are seasonal or specific to the locality of the store. Many stores sell pre-packaged food items, hot and cold sandwiches, and drinkware including mugs and tumblers; select "Starbucks Evenings" locations offer beer, wine, and appetizers. Starbucks-brand coffee, ice cream and bottled cold coffee drinks are also sold at grocery stores. Starbucks first became profitable in Seattle in the early 1980s, and despite an initial economic downturn with its expansion into the Midwest and British Columbia in the late 1980s, the company experienced revitalized prosperity with its entry into California in the early 1990s. The first Starbucks location outside North America opened in Tokyo in 1996; overseas properties now constitute almost one third of its stores. The company had opened an average of two new locations daily between 1987 and 2007.